The Neuropsychological Double Dissociation Psychology Essay

The Neuropsychological Double Dissociation Psychology Essay Uncomfortable bedfellows; according to Bishop this constitutes the relationship between cognitive neuropsychology and developmental disorders. Boyle et al. (2011) showed that one out of six children suffer from a developmental disorder. The ICD-10 (WHO, 1992) defines developmental disorders (DD) as fulfilling three categories: an early onset, a delay in developmental functions relating to the CNS or biological maturation and a lack of remission. The DSM-IV (APA, 2000) takes a different direction by categorising Pervasive Developmental Disorders as characterized by impaired development of reciprocal social interaction and communication skills and the presence of stereotyped behaviour, interests, and activities. Whilst the first definition describes DD like developmental Prosopagnosia (face blindness, DP) which affects around 2.47% of the population (Kennerknecht, Grueter T., Welling, Wentzek, Horst, Edwards, Grueter M., 2006), the latter definition matches the triad of impairments of autism (ASD) which has a prevalence of 1% (Boyle et al., 2011). Comorbidity of DD such as ASD and prosopagnosia can result (Bate, 2012). At the same time, around 20% of individuals over 18 years suffer from acquired brain disorders and diseases (Family Caregiver Alliance, 2012). Deficits in acquired and developmental individuals are commonly mapped out using functional models and explored via double-dissociations. These are usually derived from acquired disorder (AD) patients rather than DD patients. How these factors influence the debate of cognitive neuropsychology and DD making uncomfortable bedfellows shall be explored in the following. Several points will be discussed as having an influential role in the debate of cognitive neuropsychology (CN) accounting for developmental disorders (DD). These are: modularity, plasticity and compensation, competence and performance, differences between exploring AD and DD and the role of double-dissociations in relation to developmental versus acquired disorders as displayed in CN. The association between structural and cognitive development is gaining recognition. Developmental changes in task-specific processing such as that of faces have been argued to play an important role in the amalgamation of various brain networks and experience-based growth of neural architecture (Westermann, Sirois, Shultz, Mareschal, 2006). Also, a bidirectional interaction between behavioural and neuronal development has been established as learning supposedly influences brain structuring and vice versa. Similarly, the rate of neurogenesis arguably depends on learning and environmental circumstances (Westermann et al., 2006). (Bishop, 1997, p.902) Following on from that, cognition is executed by the growing neurofunctional network. This distributed parallel processing arguably is organised into interacting modules (Table 1), which comprise of different levels of complexity depending on the cognitive task or function carried out (Jackson, 1958). This can be illustrated by Theory of Mind (Baron-Cohen, 1995) in ASD: ToM proposes developmental impairment of the ability to appreciate own and others mental states (beliefs, desires or intentions etc). Adams (2010), Brothers (1990) theory of the Social Brain and Leslies (1991) ToM Mechanism argue that key features of ToM can be explained in terms of modularity. Marchery (forthcoming) supports this as modularity poses a crucial characteristic of biological development. Arguably, deficits are not due to minor developmental brain problems in lower-level input and consequential cascading abnormal interaction between input and higher-level systems that affect all cognitive capacities (Karmiloff-Smith, 1998; 1992; Machery, forthcoming). Nonetheless, this is what Gerrans P.,T. and Stone (2008) argue. Additionally, low-level deficits such as gaze and face processing prevent ASD individuals from having the same experience as typically developing individuals, caused by a deficit in domain-general capacity. This has the aforementioned cascading interaction effect during development rather than leading to a dysfunctional mindreading module. However, Gerrans et al. do not see development as single causality. Reconciling, Baron-Cohen (1995) postulates that ToM is either seen as innate module or explained by deficits in general learning mechanisms and unifies both in the intermediate model of Social Perception of Minimalist Innate Modularity. (Amaral, Schumann, Nordahl, 2008, p.2) Figure 1 displays brain structures associated with dysfunctions in ASD. Amaral et al. (2008) join the debate of modularity suggesting that despite functional identification of modules no clear pathology has emerged yet but rather, that e.g. Schumann and Amaral, (2004) have demonstrated that the developmental trajectory itself rather than the final product exhibits most disruption and by this posing a further point against applying CN to the explanation of DD. Functions of modularity imply, on the other hand, that one zone can belong to several overlapping neuronal networks (Damasceno, 2010).Disordered brain development can lead to structural disruption and thereby to several dysfunctions which may not appear as a specific deficit but as a syndrome (a collection of symptoms) as demonstrated in the triad of impairments in ASD (Wing Gould, 1979). Similarly, lesions to a localised brain area do not always cause isolated but sometimes collective symptoms (Kolb, Brown, Witt-Lajeunesse, Gibb, 2001). These are caused, i.a. by disturbances in interconnected regions which might appear intact on functional brain imaging scans. However, changes in neurotransmission, excitatory or inhibitory processes or blood flow might cause secondary symptoms not predicted by the data. One interesting example was proposed by Sandel, Weiss and Ivker (1990): their patient was described as amnesic after traumatic brain injury. Her impaired cognition was considered a secondary deficit as her EEG and other clinical tests proved negative. No other disruptions were present until she was eventually diagnosed with multiple personality disorder. Therefore several unexpected and seemingly unconnected functional disruptions might result from a single localised lesion. These points argue against the notion of using CN in explaining DD due to the assumptions held. Advancing to the next argument, functional (mal)development following lesions or disrupted neurogenesis might also demonstrate individual differences in brain structure, due to varying input, demands and circumstances. Thomas and Karmiloff-Smith (2003) added that specialisation/modularity is not directing development but contrarily, is the outcome of this. On the other hand, the brain activity of healthy individuals supports a normalisation process to facilitate models being created for generalisation purposes. As Tager-Flusberg (1999) counter-argues, functional variation in dysfunctional individuals is similar to that of typical population. Allegedly, localisation is universally alike thereby plasticity, compensation or adaptation to damage are neglected. Examples of compensatory processes and resulting behaviour (or v.v.?) are stimming in ASD for sensory overload (Grandin, 2009) or remembering haircuts in prosopagnosics for identification (Bate, 2012). Adaptation can express itself by change in neurochemistry, psychomotor stimulants and compensatory behaviour while it is argued that the behaviour triggers alteration in neurochemistry (Kolb et al., 2001). This in turn, points to the aforementioned bidirectionality of structure and learning which has implications for acquired as well as developmental patients and goes against explaining DD in a CN framework. At this point, double-dissociations are commonly applied to provide clues to brain-behaviour relationships. In 1955, Teuber introduced the term double-dissociation referring to mirror-deficit patients. Buchaine, Parker, and Nakayama (2003) proposed the example of NM, a prosopagnosic whose abilities support previous findings (Young, Newcombe, De Haan, Small, Hay, 1993) of a double-dissociation of identity and emotion recognition. Van Peelen, Lucas, Mayer, and Vuilleumier (2009) added that emotional guidance of attention to facial expression can be unimpaired and thus functionally differ from face identification. Interestingly, Teuber did not establish double-dissociations to discover networks within cognitive architecture (Van Orden, Pennington, Stone, 2001) as localising a lesion does not imply a responsibility for dysfunctions. Further, modularity of functional networks has not been unanimously established. Nonetheless, modularity is one key feature of CN serving the notion of double-dissociations. CN informs theories of normal cognitive function by analysing the break down of cognitive systems in atypical patients (Bullinaria Chater, 1997). However, inferring theory from damage patients is full of obstacles and depends on models of normal functioning. As Caramazza (1984) argued, double-dissociations are valid forms of inference but only if the cognitive model is well developed; only single-case studies can provide information relevant to our understanding of cognitive architecture. Contradicting, Shallice (1988) argued that a double-dissociation between two tasks does not necessarily imply a double-dissociation between cognitive processes. Since the argument concerning emergence of CN models and the role of AD and DD has not been resolved yet, a need of inclusion of further aspects becomes apparent. One aspect is Residual Normality which claims that atypical development impairs only specific domains while the rest functions typically (Thomas Karmiloff-Smith, 2002). Similar behavioural impairments demonstrated by adult brain damage and infant-onset disorders are assumed to support modularity of typical neuronal system structure. Opposing the assumption of RN, compensation due to damage causes alterations in various other modules (Thomas, 2003). Shallice (1988) introduced deriving knowledge about the neuronal system from behavioural impairments in AD and DD, such as malfunctioning ToM in autism (Leslie, 1991). As argued by Bishop and Karmiloff-Smith (1997; 1998) such an inferential process within the static model of CN leads to invalid explanations of dysfunctional development. Functional Models on the other hand do not possess a developmental component, and display what is expected to happen under various conditions in terms of functionality and processes (DMello Franklin, 2011). Thus impairments can be analysed under the assumption of RN as it has been done, for example in the study of autism and prosopagnosia (Thomas et al., 2002). Examples of models are given in Figure two and three. Despite this, it has been suggested to use connectionist models where in AD the damage is applied at the end of training and for DD prior to it as this is argued to reflect actuality in a truer light. Connectionist models indeed are suitable for the investigation of DD as behavioural deficits such as in autism (Thomas et al., 2002) can be captured well following simulated atypical development. It is highlighted that AD and DD are studied using separate models, thereby arguing against functional models within CN. Figure 2: Functional model of face-processing (Wright, Wardlaw, Young, Zeman, 2006) Figure 3: Models of Autism (Anderson and Herbert, 2008) The aforementioned factors influencing whether cognitive neuropsychology is suitable for explaining DD have given a mixed picture. Jackson and Coltheart (2001) defended the use of CN in DD stating that development itself (thus distal causes like genes or background) are irrelevant for the identification of un/healthy functions, given modularity. Whether acquired or developmental proximal (what is wrong right now) and distal causes can be deduced independently from each other. Indeed, Jackson et al. argue that common architectural issues in AD and DD can be established using CN. Bishop on the other hand postulates against this as deficits are focused on while intact processes are neglected. Further, top-down and bottom-up interactions are dismissed. Karmiloff-Smith (1998) deems these highly relevant for understanding DD. Thirdly a uniform modularity is assumed without accounting for alterations in development. Bishop proposed that AD should be researched using single-case double-dissociations while for DD, as they are likely to demonstrate associated deficits, group studies are recommended. Problematically, the debate on what constitutes a module has not been clarified yet (e.g. Fodor (2000): encapsulation, Coltheart (1999): domain specificity). Until this is established functional models and CN will not carry valid explanations nor reveal (mal)development well (Thomas et al., 2002). This underpins the view against exploring DD within a CN framework. Additionally, modularity/plasticitys scope of variation in DD and AD remains unestablished (Tager-Flusberg, 2000; Thomas et al., 2003). Humphreys, Ewing, and Karmiloff-Smith (2002) proposed the example of Williams syndrome patients possessing intact face recognition which is, however, achieved by applying processes diverging from typicality. Initially, face recognition was seen as intact despite visuospatial deficits, reduced sensitivity to inverted faces and lack of progressive development of localisation (Grice, Spratling, Karmiloff-Smith, Halit, Csibra, De Haan, Johnson, 2001). Hypothetically, assuming RN, this could be seen as double-dissociation between developmental prosopagnosia and WS. Basing modelling of DD on highly debated assumptions poses a problem for validity of the framework. Additionally, CN is accused of focusing on representational (competence) rather than processing (performance) deficits (Bishop, 1997). This, however, appears to be crucial in terms of applying research to DD. Weigelt, Koldewyn, and Kanwisher (2012) demonstrated a lack of qualitative difference (how facial identity is discriminated or remembered, competence) but rather a quantitative (how well, performance) difference in that ASD patients are impaired in memory and perception despite indication of intact face identity recognition. According to Bishop, this is another argument against applying CN to exploring DD. Concluding then, the much debated assumption of modularity held in cognitive neuropsychology overshadows exploration of disruptions during the trajectory of neuronal development. Applying double-dissociations to DD arguably yields invalid results and is more suited to acquired disorders. This is due to the assumptions within CN of Residual Normality, directionality of impact within disorders and its dependence on localisation of disruption, universality of localisation, neglect of plasticity and the focus on (in)competence. All in all, it has been proposed, while certain aspects could be overlooked, connectionist models rather than functional models would yield better results. Also, cognitive neuropsychology focuses on adult processes thus damage after complete development which is hard to match onto disorders of development. In order for CN to account validly for disorders, different models have to be applied for acquired and developmental cases.

Egyptian Jewerly and Makeup :: essays research papers

Egyptian Jewelry and Makeup   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Everyday in the Egyptian way of life, both men and women would adorn themselves with beautiful jewelry and makeup. Wearing these pieces of jewelry and makeup was part of their everyday life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Everyone, man or woman, Egypt wore more type of jewelry. What kind of jewelry they wore was usually dependent on how wealthy they were. The rich wore fine jewelry made from gold, silver, or electrum inlaid with precious stones. The less wealthy wore jewelry that was made of copper or faience, which is made by heating powdered quartz.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ring and amulets were especially worn to ward off evil spirits and/or injury. Cowrie shells were worn to show the desire of the wearer to have children. They also wore jewelry with the god Heh, which means the god of ‘millions of years’, which symbolizes long life. Younger Egyptians wore charms that resembled beards or side locks of hair to symbolize youth and innocence. Perhaps the most interesting fact about jewelry was that many children wore fish amulets to prevent from downing and accidents in the Nile River.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jewelry was also a reward to people for outstanding services to the community. The jewelry was hanged out by the king. The king would lean out of windows and drops bracelets or collars to the nobles waiting respectfully below.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The gold that was used to make jewelry in Egyptian times was not scarce like it is in present day. Mines between the Nile River and Red Sea coast yielded large quantities of this precious metal. They also imported precious stones from the Sinai Peninsula and even Afghanistan. The Egyptians, however, had no knowledge of the gemstones and jewels we have today, such as diamonds, emeralds, and rubies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Egyptians were big lovers of all beauty and fashion. They were such lovers of beauty that some of their names were based on the word ‘nefer’, which means beautiful. Examples of such were Nefert, Nefertiti, and Nefertari. The goddess associated with adornment was â€Å"Hathor the Golden†, who is seen as the ideal of beauty in love and poetry of the time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Both Egyptian men and women wore makeup, such as eye paint. For their eye paint and eye shadow they used a mineral called Kohl. Apart from making their eyes look brighter, and larger, Kohl was once believed to have the value as a protection against eye disease. Its blackness also controls the sun’s glare in the desert.

The government of Australia economic policies is failing Australians

This has increased caused an increase in debt due to loss of employments. This has fur reaching effects in accounts of most institutions which those who are laid off have financial transactions with.Most of those who are laid off are servicing loans or paying for goods or services which they got on credit now they can’t afford to pay. The loans will accrue interest for the months they will not be serviced and most of them would be difficult to be repaid hence financial institutions will report high rate of loan default.Those who will manage to pay might pay it over a long period so they shall pay it with more interest. Companies which have sold goods of on services will have to involve debt collectors who they have to pay commission which would be more than they had budgeted.Companies which are lying of staff are being involved in calculations of benefits and other payments dues. They will also need to recalculate expenses to be incurred based on the staffs that are left such as office expenses.The Australia government will loss on income tax and companies dealing with pension funds will pay more this financial year which would affect their books of accounts.If the government will not put on measures to lower the unemployment rate it shall affect accounting records of different economic sectors. The effects will be realized in this financial year and subsequent years depending on how different sectors shall be able to adapt.ReferencesThe Editor, 2009, Govt policies costing jobs, Available at http://www.wabusinessnews.com.au/en-story/1/71103/Govt-policies-costing-jobs-Turnbull

Find out What Marine Conservation Is

Marine conservation is also known as ocean conservation. The health of all life on Earth depends (directly or indirectly) on a healthy ocean. As humans began to realize their increasing impacts on the ocean, the field of marine conservation arose in response. This article discusses the definition of marine conservation, techniques used in the field, and some of the most important ocean conservation issues. Marine Conservation Definition Marine conservation is the protection of marine species and ecosystems in oceans and seas worldwide. It involves not only protection and restoration of species, populations, and habitats but also mitigating human activities such as overfishing, habitat destruction, pollution, whaling and other issues that impact marine life and habitats. A related term you may encounter is marine conservation biology, which is the use of science to solve conservation issues.   Brief History of Ocean Conservation People became more aware of their impacts on the environment in the 1960s and 1970s. Around this same time, Jacques Cousteau brought the wonder of the oceans to people through television. As scuba diving technology improved, more people took to the undersea world. Whalesong recordings fascinated the public, helped people recognize whales as sentient beings, and led to whaling bans. Also in the 1970s, laws were passed in the U.S. regarding protection of marine mammals (Marine Mammal Protection Act), protection of endangered species (Endangered Species Act), overfishing (Magnuson Stevens Act) and clean water (Clean Water Act), and establishing a National Marine Sanctuary Program (Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act). In addition, the  International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships was enacted to reduce ocean pollution. In more recent years, as ocean issues came to the forefront, the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy was established in 2000 to develop recommendations for a new and comprehensive national ocean policy.  This led to the creation of the National Ocean Council, which is charged with implementing the National Ocean Policy, which establishes a framework for managing the ocean, Great Lakes, and coastal areas, encourages more coordination between the Federal, state and local agencies charged with managing ocean resources, and using marine spatial planning effectively. Marine Conservation Techniques Marine conservation work can be done by enforcing and creating laws, such as the Endangered Species Act and Marine Mammal Protection Act. It can also be done by establishing marine protected areas, studying populations through conducting stock assessments and mitigating human activities with the goal of restoring populations.   An important part of marine conservation is outreach and education. A popular environmental education quote by conservationist Baba Dioum states that In the end, we will conserve only what we love; we will love only what we understand; and we will understand only what we are taught. Marine Conservation Issues Current and emerging issues in marine conservation include: Ocean acidificationClimate change and warming ocean temperatures.Sea level riseReducing bycatch in marine fisheries and entanglements in fishing gear.Establishing marine protected areas  to protect important habitats, commercially and/or recreationally-valuable species and feeding and breeding areas.Regulating whalingProtecting coral reefs through studying the problem of coral bleaching.Addressing the worldwide problem of invasive species.Marine debris and the issue of plastics in the ocean.Dealing with the problem of shark finning.Oil spills (an issue the public became well aware of thanks to the Exxon Valdez and Deepwater Horizon spills).The ongoing debate of the appropriateness of cetaceans in captivity.Studying and protecting endangered species (e.g., North Atlantic right whale, vaquita, sea turtles, monk seals and many other threatened and endangered species). References and Further Information: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Story: Marine Conservation. Accessed November 30, 2015.ScienceDaily Reference. Marine Conservation. Accessed November 30, 2015.U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy. 2004. Review of U.S. Ocean and Coastal Law: The Evolution of Ocean Governance Over Three Decades. Accessed November 30. 2015.  U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy. About the Commission.  Accessed November 30, 2015.The United States Environmental Protection Agency. Ocean Dumping Timeline. Accessed November 30, 2015.